I received the new software image directly from Cisco Support. With that, the problem is solved.

It's a Cisco ASA 5516-FTD-K9 device based on Intel Atom C2000.

The ASA software version given above is correct.Here is the first part of the output generated by show version command:Cisco Adaptive Security Appliance Software Version 89.16(4)50SSP Operating System Version 2.10(1.5003)Device Manager Version 7.24(1...